Kudurru of Marduk-apla-iddina II

Brief Introduction[]

Babylonian Kudurrus, also known as narûs or boundary stones, served as proof that land was given to someone by the king and described the boarders of the land. While they are generally called Kudurrus today, the objects refer to themselves as narûs [See Slanski 2003, 7]. This Kudurru from the late 8th century BCE served as documentation of Babylonian King Marduk-apla-iddina II (King Merodach-baladan II) bestowing land upon Bēl-aḫḫē-iddina, a chief Babylonian officer [See Slanski 2003, 312]. Written in the Akkadian language, the Kudurru also includes statements of protection of the land granted by deity [See Slanski 2003, xvii-xviii, 22]. The Kudurru of Marduk-apla-iddina II was found in the ancient city of Borsippa [See Slanski 2003, 306] and is currently housed at the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin.

Technical Evaluation[]

This Kudurru, along with the majority of the other Kudurrus uncovered, is made of dark limestone. Limestone was a rarity in Babylon during the time of the Kudurru's creation. Babylonians tended to use metal more than stone; however, limestone was one of the more popular stones that they used in sculpture. Other Kudurrus were made from light limestone, diorite, and even pink granite. Limestone grew in popularity during the Kassite occupation of Babylon most likely because they brought it down from the Zagros Mountains with them [See Moorey 1994, 30]. Most Kudurrus’ dark limestone is most likely from the Zagros Mountains and was transported southward by being dragged or were transported by river [See Moorey 1994, 27]. After being transported, the Kudurrus were then carved. Limestone carving was done in the traditional way with a hammer and a chisel with very few technological advancements in the late 8th century BCE. Hammers and chisels were used to carve the cuneiform writing into the limestone slab before the Kudurrus were placed in temples [See Moorey 1994, 31].

The Kudurru of Marduk-apla-iddina II is the only Kudurru found so far that contains both a narrative of how the land came to be given to Bēl-aḫḫē-iddina in addition to a paean praising a deity [see Kriwaczek 2012,28-31]. Both the narrative and the paean are forms of justifying the land being given to the recipient. In addition to these, the Kudurru has a description of the land and its borders and the names and images of the King and recipient [See Slanski 2003, 171].

The Kudurru was discovered in the Nabû Temple in Borsippa along with four other Kudurrus by a team of German researchers at the turn of the 20th century. The Kudurrus were taken to Berlin and the Vorderasiatisches Museum shortly after their unearthing [See Slanski 2003, 6].

Local Historical Context[]

Marduk-apla-iddina II ruled during a time when the Babylonian throne was being shuffled around between the time of the Isin II Dynasty and the Neo-Babylonian Period [See Slanski 2003, xvii]. Before he overthrew the Assyrian monarch, Marduk-apla-iddina II was the leader of the Beit Yakin clan and a Chaldean prince. Managing to maintain control over Babylon for twelve years from 722-710 BCE, Marduk-apla-iddina II eventually was driven out of the throne by Akkadian Sargon II. After Sargon II died, Marduk-apla-iddina regained the Babylonian throne for nine months in 703 BCE. After those nine months, he was over thrown again by an Assyrian monarch. Marduk-apla-iddina II then died a few years later in the neighboring kingdom of Elam [See Kriwaczek 2012, 255-256]. Marduk-apla-iddina II is mentioned in the Bible under the name Merodach-baladan II as King of Babylon and is said to have given a gift to the prophet Hezekiah [see Isaiah 39:1].

The people that made Kudurrus were stone craftsmen under the employ of the crown. Stone craftsmen were divided into two categories. Stonecutters, or bur-gals in Akkadian, were employed mostly in seal cutting and vessel making and dealt with stones that are more common. Lapidaries, or za-gìn-dímes in Akkadian, that were concerned mainly with jewelry making and dealt with more precious stones. Kudurrus were carved by the former [See Moorey 1994, 22].

Kudurrus are among a large variety of economic texts from Babylon including documents recording sales, loans, marriages, and other contracts [See Alexander 1943, 3]. Created for record keeping, Kudurrus resemble modern deeds with the addition of the reason for the land being given, descriptions of the land, and divine protections. Kudurrus were originally thought to have been placed at the borders of the land that they described. After they were found in many temples and translations from the Kudurrus mentioned separate boundary markers that resided at the borders of land, the theory that Kudurrus were placed in temples became more accepted [See Slanski 2003, 59-60]. The Kudurru of Marduk-apla-iddina II specifically grants Bēl-aḫḫē-iddina and his descendants the rights to specific orchards and fields because of his military office [See Slanski 2003, 312].

World-Historical Significance[]

The Kudurru of Marduk-apla-iddina II is one of many Kudurrus that served similar purposes of establishing to whom land was given and thereby belonged to. This tradition of using Kudurrus for this purpose in the late 8^thcentury BCE began long before and is thought to have been introduced to the Babylonians during the Kassite occupation. Because of the occupation, ways of record keeping and materials (black limestone) were transferred throughout Mesopotamia during the 14^th century resulting in the Kassite Kudurrus becoming Babylonian Kudurrus [See Slanski 2003, 9].

The dark limestone of the Kudurru also was used by other Mesopotamian societies for sculpting because of its lustrous black shine. The "Black Obelisk" of Shalmaneser III in Nimrud and also other monuments in Nineveh are of black limestone suspected to be from the same source in the Zagros Mountains [See Moorey 1994, 346].

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